As English majors, we are all probably aware of how intertwined and connected the subjects of history and English have always been. Four years ago, I debated which one I enjoyed more. I chose to major in English because I have always thought that Literature provided the best of both worlds. I could learn about history, while also developing a deeper appreciation for the beauty of language, which authors and poets portray the past with.
Melville’s Battle Pieces and Aspects of the War is a perfect example of literature as a mouthpiece for history. With is joining of history and language, this anthology of poetry is a testament for why I am pleased with my decision to major in English.
Battle Pieces is a famous collection of poems about the Civil War and its effects on American history. Both Whitman and Melville chose to use their poetic talents to provide a voice for the historical events during the 19th century. Whitman focused on individual experiences of emotional devastation that soldiers experienced. Whitman was able to draw from personal experience and contact he experienced through army hospitals, throughout the course of the war. In contrast, Melville focused on larger, more general stages and battles for a better overall understanding of the war.
Melville’s Battle Pieces is a series of poems that follows the civil war in chronological order, from John Brown’s Raid to Lincoln’s Assassination. I enjoyed reading Melville’s anthology, because it was a refreshing lesson in 19th century American history. Melville’s language eloquently evokes both emotion and rationality, through his unique interpretation of key battles and movements of the war.
Melville begins his poetic litany of the Civil War with “The Portent.” Simply defined, a portent, is an indication or omen of something that is about to happen. Melville uses this image to depict a possible cause of the war. Melville, in a somewhat gruesome tone, describes the effects of John Brown’s raid as the initiator of the entire war. The reader is hit with the image of John Brown swinging from a tree after being hung for treason. “Hanging from the beam, slowly swaying (such the law),…Lo, John Brown…The meteor of the war” (2461).
History or literature? This is a question I pose after reflecting upon Melville's Battle Pieces.
In addition to relating historical dates, facts and outcomes, Melville also evoked the emotions that surfaced from the unprecedented suffering and death that resulted from the war. “The March into Virginia Ending in the First Manassas,” focuses on the earliest major engagement of the Civil War, which was the Battle of Bull Run. Melville approaches the event from the perspective of the young soldiers involved. He captures the heart and emotion of the reader (including myself) by addressing the enthusiasm with which the young boys approached each battle. Slowly, their motivation dwindles as death swarms the battle and the war at large. He notes, “But some who this blithe mood present, as on in lightsome files they fare, shall die experienced ere three days are spent – perish, enlightened by the vollied glare” (2463).
It is through literature that great authors and poets, such as Whitman and Melville were able to fulfill their calling by recording some of the most important events in American history.
Friday, December 5, 2008
Bravery at its Best: Walt Whitman’s “The Wound-Dresser”
Through his pioneering poems, such as “Song of Myself” and “The Wound-Dresser,” Walt Whitman laid a foundation for modern poetry. Whitman’s work represents a clear break with literary traditions of the romantic period. At a time when poetry was highly stylized, formal and figurative, Whitman controversially chose to write innovative free-verse. He defied convention with his eye-opening, horrific image of truth. This tone and subject matter stood in stark opposition with the more optimistic, romantic style of his contemporaries, such as Dickinson.
Overwhelmed by the suffering of the Civil War, Whitman felt a calling to his country to poetically portray the effects of 19th century, war-torn America.
When we think of war heroes, images of injured soldiers, Purple Heart medals and forceful army generals rush to our immediate consciousness. The grueling work of the nurses, doctors and other “behind-the-scenes” occupations are often overlooked. Although care-takers do not face death in the line of fire, they are forced to witness and handle intense suffering, depression and a high fatality rate.
Which image of man evokes more courage – the soldier or the wound-dresser? Whitman would side with the latter.
Whitman presents an unprecedented portrayal of bravery, by shifting the focus from the courage of soldiers to the unspoken courage of the wound-dresser. He poses the question, “Of unsurpassed heroes, was one side so brave? The other was equally brave” (2279, line 8)
Whitman had a unique talent for grabbing the attention of his reader and then slowly guiding his audience from general, large-scale images to specific, personal circumstances. The structure of “The Wound-Dresser,” follows this successful style. He begins the poem with a broad illustration of soldiers in masses and, with each progressing section, tightens the scene to an intimate image of one boy’s struggle with death. The specificity accumulates meaning as the poem unfolds.
The opening image is one of an omnipresent narrator, in which an old veteran imaginatively retells powerful memories from the war. After describing the monotony of wounded soldiers which he attends to, the narrator stops and focuses on one “poor boy.” “To the long rows of cots up and down each side I return,” he says. “I onward go, I stop – poor boy!” (2280, line 30-35). An even more specific description of the boys’ injuries follows. Finally, we begin to empathize with both the boy and the wound-dresser, as the soldier struggles with life and death. “Come sweet death! Be persuaded O beautiful death! In mercy come quickly” (2280, line 43-44).
Medical compassion is actually a commonly debated topic today. Some say that nurses and physicians should distance themselves from the suffering of their patients. Whitman’s poem makes a case for the power of intimate care and compassion. While repairing physical wounds is not easy, providing emotional support and spiritual comfort requires a deeper sense of commitment and bravery.
I think Whitman provides the best characterization of courage when he describes the wound-dresser with the following: “To sit by the wounded and soothe them, or silently watch the dead” (2279, line 6). Now that is bravery at its best.
Overwhelmed by the suffering of the Civil War, Whitman felt a calling to his country to poetically portray the effects of 19th century, war-torn America.
When we think of war heroes, images of injured soldiers, Purple Heart medals and forceful army generals rush to our immediate consciousness. The grueling work of the nurses, doctors and other “behind-the-scenes” occupations are often overlooked. Although care-takers do not face death in the line of fire, they are forced to witness and handle intense suffering, depression and a high fatality rate.
Which image of man evokes more courage – the soldier or the wound-dresser? Whitman would side with the latter.
Whitman presents an unprecedented portrayal of bravery, by shifting the focus from the courage of soldiers to the unspoken courage of the wound-dresser. He poses the question, “Of unsurpassed heroes, was one side so brave? The other was equally brave” (2279, line 8)
Whitman had a unique talent for grabbing the attention of his reader and then slowly guiding his audience from general, large-scale images to specific, personal circumstances. The structure of “The Wound-Dresser,” follows this successful style. He begins the poem with a broad illustration of soldiers in masses and, with each progressing section, tightens the scene to an intimate image of one boy’s struggle with death. The specificity accumulates meaning as the poem unfolds.
The opening image is one of an omnipresent narrator, in which an old veteran imaginatively retells powerful memories from the war. After describing the monotony of wounded soldiers which he attends to, the narrator stops and focuses on one “poor boy.” “To the long rows of cots up and down each side I return,” he says. “I onward go, I stop – poor boy!” (2280, line 30-35). An even more specific description of the boys’ injuries follows. Finally, we begin to empathize with both the boy and the wound-dresser, as the soldier struggles with life and death. “Come sweet death! Be persuaded O beautiful death! In mercy come quickly” (2280, line 43-44).
Medical compassion is actually a commonly debated topic today. Some say that nurses and physicians should distance themselves from the suffering of their patients. Whitman’s poem makes a case for the power of intimate care and compassion. While repairing physical wounds is not easy, providing emotional support and spiritual comfort requires a deeper sense of commitment and bravery.
I think Whitman provides the best characterization of courage when he describes the wound-dresser with the following: “To sit by the wounded and soothe them, or silently watch the dead” (2279, line 6). Now that is bravery at its best.
Thursday, November 20, 2008
Funny Fanny
Sarah Payson Willis was one of the best-paid and most famous authors at the time. She remains one of the few women of the early 19th century who was able to support herself from writing, which was highly unusual in such a male-dominant society. Under the pseudonym of “Fanny Fern,” Willis is remembered for her ironic vignettes, or short humorous stories. After all, who could forget a funny name like Fanny Fern? Like her pseudonym, her methods of humor allow readers to quickly engage in the story, absorb the plot with ease and enjoyment, and above all retain the central message. Through humor, Fern tackled tough, controversial issues, such as gender inequality and woman’s suffrage.
A lot of Fern’s writings addressed the injustices in a marriage and the lack of husbands’ appreciation for their wives. For example, in “Aunt Hetty on Matrimony,” Fern employs the comical persona of “Aunt Hetty” to dispel the “glories” of married life. She bluntly states, “Love is a farce; matrimony is a humbug; husbands are domestic Napoleons” (1794).
Similarly, in “Hungry Husbands,” Fern presents cooking as the only essential quality to win a man’s heart. “The straightest road to a man’s heart is through his palate,” she writes. Fern presents men as pigs, both literally and metaphorically.
While the topic of matrimonial inequality filled the lines of a lot of Fern’s vignettes, Fern addresses intellectual inequality in her article, “Male Criticism on Ladies’ Books.” Fern begins this article, in true Fanny Fern style, with a passage from the conventional writings of the day.
“Courtship and marriage, servants and children, these are the great objects of a woman’s thoughts, and they necessarily form the staple topics of their writings and their conversation. We have no right to expect anything else in a woman’s book.”
- N.Y. Times (1799)
While it is difficult today to believe that this quote was printed in the New York Times, it was a common argument women writers had to dispel. Fern not only dispels this familiar male critique, but dismisses it with creative humor. Upon considering the criticism of female literature, Fern paints an imaginative picture of the “snarling critic” as an unhappy man in a dark, old, dusty room, full of filth and cobwebs. He is selfish, alone and un-kissable. She labels him as a wretch, bitter from the refusal of some pretty girl. Although Fern’s words sound equally as harsh, her humorous exaggeration shows that men need women, both physically and intellectually.
Fern also goes on to note that the male critic is not only rude, but also foolish, by discounting his point that men are more intelligent. Fern astutely points out that if men were, in fact more intelligent, they would go about criticizing female novels in a more intelligent manner.
Overall, Fern’s works were funny and enjoyable, yet simultaneously influential and groundbreaking. With Fern’s ironic and sometimes outrageous phrases and metaphors, she opened up the door for women writers in
Although we have come a long way concerning women’s rights and gender inequality, thanks to brave, influential writers like Fern, sexist sentiments in society still remain. For example, I believe Sarah Palin was unfairly criticized by the media in the 2008 election. Even as a very smart politician, she was still portrayed as a slow hick from
Saturday, November 15, 2008
Communal America
If I die, how badly will I be missed? Will my funeral be packed with meaningful mourners or will the church be vacant? What would my family and friends do without me?
Whether willing to admit it or not, these imaginative thoughts and speculations subconsciously slip into all of our minds at some point in time. In this sense, we are all able to sympathize and engage with
Contrary to other American authors,
As a dark Romantic,
As contributions to the Romantic literary movement,
“He has left us much food for thought, a portion of which shall lend its wisdom to a moral…Amid the seeming confusion of our mysterious world, individuals are so nicely adjusted to a system, and systems to one another, and to a whole, that, by stepping aside for a moment, a man exposes himself to a fearful risk of losing his place forever. Like
In this short story,
Although we do not live in 19th century New England, we can still benefit from
Sunday, November 9, 2008
Intellectual Declaration of Independence
Ralph Waldo Emerson still stands as one of the most influential American writers of all time. Through his writings, poems and speeches, Emerson began, what is now known as, the transcendentalist movement, which favored intuition over traditional doctrine. In 1837, Emerson delivered a famous speech, titled “The American Scholar” to the Phi Beta Kappa Society in
Even 60 years after the revolution,
According to Emerson, a scholar must first turn to nature for inspiration. Through the “study of nature” one can come to “know thyself” (1140). When observing the basics of nature, we classify certain elements as either beautiful and noteworthy or boring and monotonous. By individually declaring these classifications, we become one with nature. Through individualized thought, we have the power to shape our interpretation of nature and therefore, nature itself. Emerson sums up the influence of nature on man, when he says, “Its beauty is the beauty of his own mind” (1140).
Emerson’s second source of inspiration for scholarship is books. “Books are the best of things, well used; abused, among the worst,” Emerson said (1141). Abuse of books comes from the mere recitation of historical facts, which was the staple of “bookworm” British intellect. Instead of memorizing history, Emerson believed books should only be used to gather information in order to form one’s own opinion. Books should inspire new thought and new theory.
Finally, a scholar must take action. In addition to exposing himself to a variety of professions and perspectives, a scholar must exert confidence in his own abilities to think and trust his intuition and instincts. Individualism, or the will to never give in to popular opinion, is the only source of true scholarship. Emerson criticized conformity when he said, “In the degenerate state, he (man) tends to become a mere thinker, or still worse, the parrot of other men’s thinking” (1139).
Although almost 200 years removed, Emerson’s call for
Emerson’s “American Scholar” address is an insightful and refreshing reminder for why I love studying liberal arts and literature so much. I found a perfect quote that summarizes Emerson’s core belief and inspires me to use my talents to better myself and help others. He once said, “Make the most of yourself, for that is all there is of you.”
Saturday, November 1, 2008
The American Short Story
Washington Irving produced some of the earliest pieces of American fiction still read today. Irving is remembered most for his innovative contributions to the short story genre of literature. “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle” remain two of Irving’s most renowned artistic accomplishments. In both stories, Irving uses unique literary techniques to convey historical settings and events of America in the 18th century. Using traditional folklore, Irving established many notable themes of early American fiction, such as fables, the supernatural, narrative setting and the acceptance of change.
Irving’s most notable contribution to American folklore is his use of a well-developed chain of narration. Both the “Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle” were published in a collection of Irving’s short stories in The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon. The volume has its own fictional author, Geoffrey Crayon, who finds these tales among the papers of a dead man named Diedrich Knickerbocker. This chain of narration lends an element of credibility to the stories by qualifying an actual source, whose words seem irrefutable. The multiplicity of authors establishes traditional folktales as useful in passing down and keeping American traditions alive, even in the face of revolutionary change.
Irving also enhances the importance of setting in early American literature. “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle” incorporate a clash between the city and the country as a primary narrative theme. Through detailed descriptions, Irving sets a distinct tone for his stories and engages his readers. The imagery makes the fictive elements of the magical folklore seem possible and authentic. For example, both tales are set in small villages at the foot of the Catskill Mountains. Irving personifies the wilderness with human and magical qualities. For example, in Rip Van Winkle the mountains are noted to “lord over the surrounding country, swelling to a notable height” and “glow and light up like a crown of glory” (954). This imagery sets a tone of mystery and unpredictability, making the mountains come alive to play tricks on those brave enough to venture through.
In addition to setting, Irving creatively weaves elements of the supernatural and the imagination into his narratives. The eerie and magical presence of ghosts advances the plot by creating disappearances in both stories. In “Rip Van Winkle,” the ghost of Henry Hudson induces 20 years of deep sleep on the protagonist, while a headless horseman is responsible for the disappearance of Ichabod Crane in “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” Irving’s works demonstrate how magical folklore can be beneficial by simultaneously providing entertainment and historical allusions.
While supernatural elements provide the basis for Irving’s plots, he also makes several important historical allusions. Most notably, both of his famous folktales include characters and remnants of the American Revolution. In “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” the Headless Horseman is the ghost of a Hessian trooper who was decapitated in battle, and now rides around in search of his head. This fear of British soldiers is also seen in “Rip Van Winkle”, when the new town accuses Rip o f being a “tory.” Irving’s writings, and other early American works, seem to perpetuate a stigma of King George or any monarchical rule. Through these folktales, the American Revolution is a historical truth and change that Americans had to adjust to, similar to the characters in “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle.”
Irving’s most notable contribution to American folklore is his use of a well-developed chain of narration. Both the “Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle” were published in a collection of Irving’s short stories in The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon. The volume has its own fictional author, Geoffrey Crayon, who finds these tales among the papers of a dead man named Diedrich Knickerbocker. This chain of narration lends an element of credibility to the stories by qualifying an actual source, whose words seem irrefutable. The multiplicity of authors establishes traditional folktales as useful in passing down and keeping American traditions alive, even in the face of revolutionary change.
Irving also enhances the importance of setting in early American literature. “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle” incorporate a clash between the city and the country as a primary narrative theme. Through detailed descriptions, Irving sets a distinct tone for his stories and engages his readers. The imagery makes the fictive elements of the magical folklore seem possible and authentic. For example, both tales are set in small villages at the foot of the Catskill Mountains. Irving personifies the wilderness with human and magical qualities. For example, in Rip Van Winkle the mountains are noted to “lord over the surrounding country, swelling to a notable height” and “glow and light up like a crown of glory” (954). This imagery sets a tone of mystery and unpredictability, making the mountains come alive to play tricks on those brave enough to venture through.
In addition to setting, Irving creatively weaves elements of the supernatural and the imagination into his narratives. The eerie and magical presence of ghosts advances the plot by creating disappearances in both stories. In “Rip Van Winkle,” the ghost of Henry Hudson induces 20 years of deep sleep on the protagonist, while a headless horseman is responsible for the disappearance of Ichabod Crane in “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” Irving’s works demonstrate how magical folklore can be beneficial by simultaneously providing entertainment and historical allusions.
While supernatural elements provide the basis for Irving’s plots, he also makes several important historical allusions. Most notably, both of his famous folktales include characters and remnants of the American Revolution. In “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” the Headless Horseman is the ghost of a Hessian trooper who was decapitated in battle, and now rides around in search of his head. This fear of British soldiers is also seen in “Rip Van Winkle”, when the new town accuses Rip o f being a “tory.” Irving’s writings, and other early American works, seem to perpetuate a stigma of King George or any monarchical rule. Through these folktales, the American Revolution is a historical truth and change that Americans had to adjust to, similar to the characters in “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle.”
Wednesday, October 29, 2008
Judith Sargent Murray: the Female Pioneer – October 28, 2008
Judith Sargent Murray was one of the first proponents for the equality of men and women in American history. Through her essays, plays and poetry she advocated for women’s rights at a time when deeply entrenched cultural beliefs restricted women to insignificant societal roles. Although she was preceded by other female poets, Murray was the first to boldly venture outside the lines of “domestic poets,” such as Anne Bradstreet.
Murray’s groundbreaking success is a product of her privileged background. As with other areas, success results from a quality education. Murray’s parents were also hardworking, independent individuals, who allowed the local clergyman to tutor their daughter. Murray’s notions of female equality were also compatible with the Universalist church, to which her family belonged. These background factors are important considerations when evaluating Murray’s success.
True to her independent and unique style, Murray chose to present her arguments in two literary styles. In my opinion, Murray’s argument of equality in the form of poetry is more creatively intellectual and more efficiently proves her point. She begins her poem “On the Equality of the Sexes” by portraying the contemporary standards of inequality between the sexes. True to classical forms of argumentation this acknowledges the counter argument. Murray notes that “some people” (aka women) are thought to not possess the will or wish to improve, because they are not “lovers of knowledge” and shun mental pleasures. Society dictates women to be mere figurines, devoted only to pleasure. “Stupidly dull – they move progressing on – they eat, and drink, and all their work is done” (line 20).
Murray then describes “others” (aka men) as industrious and purposeful. However, she later elaborates that men operate under a disguise by automatically and genetically inheriting a “greatness of mind.”
After establishing the contemporary cultural beliefs about equality, Murray boldly argues for the legitimacy of the independent female mind. She centers her argument on equality being a natural and self-evident right. Women at the time, such as Murray, could fall back on the Constitution and the Bill of Rights as an inarguable foundation for equality. This natural argument is seen in lines 20 through 25, which is what I perceive to be the most eloquent stanza in the poem. “Tracing the hidden springs whence knowledge flows, which nature all in beauteous order shows.” Therefore, knowledge and intelligence flows straight from nature, and is therefore a natural gift or right for all.
Murray also points out the reason for apparent female inferiority. Men “sink so low” as to rob them of any chances to improve intellectually. Without an education, women do not have the opportunity to showcase their intellectual powers of imagination, reason, memory and judgment.
In addition to her eloquent poetry, Murray also elaborates her argument in the form of prose. While her poetry is creative and clever, her prose is bold, confrontational and direct. She addresses the heart of the problem of inequality between the sexes, when she asks, “Are we deficient in reason? We can only reason from what we know, and if an opportunity of acquiring knowledge hath been denied us, the inferiority of our sex cannot fairly be deduced from thence” (p. 727).
Through both her prose and poetry, Judith Sargent Murray stood as a living testament to the validity of her own arguments. Women can succeed and contribute to society as professional intellectuals. While equality of the sexes is a natural and self-evident argument, it is still a social justice issue that has not been solved in the 21st century.
Murray’s groundbreaking success is a product of her privileged background. As with other areas, success results from a quality education. Murray’s parents were also hardworking, independent individuals, who allowed the local clergyman to tutor their daughter. Murray’s notions of female equality were also compatible with the Universalist church, to which her family belonged. These background factors are important considerations when evaluating Murray’s success.
True to her independent and unique style, Murray chose to present her arguments in two literary styles. In my opinion, Murray’s argument of equality in the form of poetry is more creatively intellectual and more efficiently proves her point. She begins her poem “On the Equality of the Sexes” by portraying the contemporary standards of inequality between the sexes. True to classical forms of argumentation this acknowledges the counter argument. Murray notes that “some people” (aka women) are thought to not possess the will or wish to improve, because they are not “lovers of knowledge” and shun mental pleasures. Society dictates women to be mere figurines, devoted only to pleasure. “Stupidly dull – they move progressing on – they eat, and drink, and all their work is done” (line 20).
Murray then describes “others” (aka men) as industrious and purposeful. However, she later elaborates that men operate under a disguise by automatically and genetically inheriting a “greatness of mind.”
After establishing the contemporary cultural beliefs about equality, Murray boldly argues for the legitimacy of the independent female mind. She centers her argument on equality being a natural and self-evident right. Women at the time, such as Murray, could fall back on the Constitution and the Bill of Rights as an inarguable foundation for equality. This natural argument is seen in lines 20 through 25, which is what I perceive to be the most eloquent stanza in the poem. “Tracing the hidden springs whence knowledge flows, which nature all in beauteous order shows.” Therefore, knowledge and intelligence flows straight from nature, and is therefore a natural gift or right for all.
Murray also points out the reason for apparent female inferiority. Men “sink so low” as to rob them of any chances to improve intellectually. Without an education, women do not have the opportunity to showcase their intellectual powers of imagination, reason, memory and judgment.
In addition to her eloquent poetry, Murray also elaborates her argument in the form of prose. While her poetry is creative and clever, her prose is bold, confrontational and direct. She addresses the heart of the problem of inequality between the sexes, when she asks, “Are we deficient in reason? We can only reason from what we know, and if an opportunity of acquiring knowledge hath been denied us, the inferiority of our sex cannot fairly be deduced from thence” (p. 727).
Through both her prose and poetry, Judith Sargent Murray stood as a living testament to the validity of her own arguments. Women can succeed and contribute to society as professional intellectuals. While equality of the sexes is a natural and self-evident argument, it is still a social justice issue that has not been solved in the 21st century.
Saturday, October 11, 2008
Knowledge – The Ticket to Freedom
I am a firm believer in the power of education. As humans, we should be open to new insights and never stop learning. Literacy is the essential foundation for true knowledge and wisdom. The skill of reading and writing exposes one to the outside world and provides all humans the opportunity for advancement. As English majors at Saint Louis University, a place where “knowledge touches lives,” we have the privileged opportunity to analyze important pieces of literature, such as the slave narratives, and learn from our great ancestors, as a form of self-advancement.
For American slaves, knowledge was not only power, but also the ticket to freedom. For example, Literacy, and other knowledgeable skills, allowed Olaudah Equiano to eventually purchase his own freedom. Literacy also enabled Frederick Douglas to escape from his southern master and plantation. Most notably, these slaves were able to record their own narratives, providing future generations the opportunity to learn from past mistakes.
Through his life narrative published in 1791, Equiano provides an early American slave perspective. Captured at the age of 11, Equiano had the unique advantage of experiencing and understanding the concept of freedom previous to his enslavement. Unlike other slaves, Equiano acquires vital life-skills which enable him to survive his captivity and eventually record his own narrative. Driven by curiosity, Equiano used every opportunity of his travels to learn from his masters and superiors. Since most of his life was spent at sea, he was able to acquire important seafaring skills. In addition, he embraced the opportunity to attend school in London. In Chapter IV of his narrative, Equiano notes, “I had long wished to be able to read and write; and for this purpose I took every opportunity to gain instruction. When I went to London with my master, I had soon an opportunity of improving myself (through schooling), which I gladly embraced” (689). Through hard work and the ability to manage ships, Equiano earns and saves a small amount of money, from which he is eventually able to purchase his own freedom.
Contrary to Equiano, Frederick Douglas was born into slavery and had no previous concept of freedom. However, that did not stop him from advancing himself beyond the cruelties of slavery. After learning the alphabet from his kind mistress, Douglas cunningly continues to become completely literate in hopes of escaping captivity. “From that moment, I understood the pathway from slavery to freedom,” Douglas declares. “Though conscious of the difficulty of learning without a teacher, I set out with high hope, and a fixed purpose, at whatever cost of trouble, to learn how to read” (2086). While completing errands for his master, Douglas made friends with poor, hungry white boys. In exchange for bread, these boys taught Douglas how to read. “This bread I used to bestow upon the hungry little urchins, who, in return, would give me that more valuable bread of knowledge,” Douglas describes (2088). Douglas then uses this “valuable knowledge” to plan and successfully escape from his master.
Through self-taught and self-motivated literacy, slaves such as Equiano and Douglas were not only able to improve themselves, but were also able to spread their knowledge and experience by recording narratives. In turn, their knowledge and stories gives us, as future students, the opportunity to better ourselves by learning from the mistakes and triumphs of history.
We should remember how Douglas eloquently described the significance of his literacy. “From that moment, I understood the pathway from slavery to freedom” (2086).
For American slaves, knowledge was not only power, but also the ticket to freedom. For example, Literacy, and other knowledgeable skills, allowed Olaudah Equiano to eventually purchase his own freedom. Literacy also enabled Frederick Douglas to escape from his southern master and plantation. Most notably, these slaves were able to record their own narratives, providing future generations the opportunity to learn from past mistakes.
Through his life narrative published in 1791, Equiano provides an early American slave perspective. Captured at the age of 11, Equiano had the unique advantage of experiencing and understanding the concept of freedom previous to his enslavement. Unlike other slaves, Equiano acquires vital life-skills which enable him to survive his captivity and eventually record his own narrative. Driven by curiosity, Equiano used every opportunity of his travels to learn from his masters and superiors. Since most of his life was spent at sea, he was able to acquire important seafaring skills. In addition, he embraced the opportunity to attend school in London. In Chapter IV of his narrative, Equiano notes, “I had long wished to be able to read and write; and for this purpose I took every opportunity to gain instruction. When I went to London with my master, I had soon an opportunity of improving myself (through schooling), which I gladly embraced” (689). Through hard work and the ability to manage ships, Equiano earns and saves a small amount of money, from which he is eventually able to purchase his own freedom.
Contrary to Equiano, Frederick Douglas was born into slavery and had no previous concept of freedom. However, that did not stop him from advancing himself beyond the cruelties of slavery. After learning the alphabet from his kind mistress, Douglas cunningly continues to become completely literate in hopes of escaping captivity. “From that moment, I understood the pathway from slavery to freedom,” Douglas declares. “Though conscious of the difficulty of learning without a teacher, I set out with high hope, and a fixed purpose, at whatever cost of trouble, to learn how to read” (2086). While completing errands for his master, Douglas made friends with poor, hungry white boys. In exchange for bread, these boys taught Douglas how to read. “This bread I used to bestow upon the hungry little urchins, who, in return, would give me that more valuable bread of knowledge,” Douglas describes (2088). Douglas then uses this “valuable knowledge” to plan and successfully escape from his master.
Through self-taught and self-motivated literacy, slaves such as Equiano and Douglas were not only able to improve themselves, but were also able to spread their knowledge and experience by recording narratives. In turn, their knowledge and stories gives us, as future students, the opportunity to better ourselves by learning from the mistakes and triumphs of history.
We should remember how Douglas eloquently described the significance of his literacy. “From that moment, I understood the pathway from slavery to freedom” (2086).
Thursday, October 2, 2008
Paine's "Plainness"
Persuasion can be a powerful political tool, especially during a time of war. In Common Sense, Thomas Paine masters the art of persuasion by appealing to a wide variety of American colonists, insisting on independence from Britain. As an effective rhetorician, Paine utilizes Aristotle’s classic lines of argument, including logos, ethos and pathos. In addition to invoking Aristotle’s arguments, Paine also adds a touch of his own persuasive style – simplicity and plainness.
In line with many other effective arguments, Paine begins Common Sense with logic. As a form of logos, Paine initially points out several different reasons to not break with England, and then rationally refutes those reasons. For example, some colonists believed America should stay loyal to the crown because England had been and would continue to be a reliable source of protection from other countries. He notes, “But she has protected us, say some” (632). Paine shifts this argument to his advantage by claiming England’s protection comes from her own self-interest, not attachment to the colonies. “She did not protect us from our enemies on our account; but from her enemies on her own account,” Paine refutes. Paine logically outlines his argument, making it hard to oppose his reasoning.
After grounding his argument in logic and reason, Paine uses ethos to show moral character. By establishing himself as a trustworthy, credible and honorable leader, Paine can persuade more people to align with his cause. In order to grab the attention of his readers, Paine boldly proclaims all loyalists to be cowards. “You have the heart of a coward and the spirit of a sycophant,” he writes (635). He then quickly reclaims his name-calling by explaining his lack of intention to offend anyone. Rather, Paine was trying to show how grave the colonists’ situation really was. This use of ethos builds Paine’s credibility as a capable and caring leader of the revolution.
One of the strongest lines of argument is the appeal to personal emotions, with human-interest stories and abstract ideals. Paine’s writing becomes more emotionally inspired as the pamphlet progresses. In detail, he describes the “wretchedness” of Britain’s six-month blockade on the city of Boston. “The inhabitants of that unfortunate city had no other alternative than to stay and starve, or turn out to starve. Endangered by the fire of their friends…in their present situation they are prisoners without the hope of redemption, and in a general attack,” Paine passionately depicts. By placing his readers into the troubled hearts and minds of those colonists suffering in Boston, Paine effectively uses pathos to emotionally engage the colonists in his revolutionary cause.
Above all else, Common Sense was able to persuade colonists to unite against England due to Paine’s “plainness.” By using simple, plain and logical language, he was able to transform the arguments of other influential leaders, such as Franklin and Jefferson, into a message that resonated with all colonists on all educational levels. The introduction emphasizes this strength. Paine says, “It is my design to make those who can scarcely read understand, and to put arguments in language as plain as the alphabet, so as to bring out a clear conclusion that shall hit the point in question and nothing else” (630). It is hard to refute an established leader who begins his work with, “In the following pages I offer nothing more than simple facts, plain arguments, and common sense” (631). If it is common sense, it must be true – right?
In line with many other effective arguments, Paine begins Common Sense with logic. As a form of logos, Paine initially points out several different reasons to not break with England, and then rationally refutes those reasons. For example, some colonists believed America should stay loyal to the crown because England had been and would continue to be a reliable source of protection from other countries. He notes, “But she has protected us, say some” (632). Paine shifts this argument to his advantage by claiming England’s protection comes from her own self-interest, not attachment to the colonies. “She did not protect us from our enemies on our account; but from her enemies on her own account,” Paine refutes. Paine logically outlines his argument, making it hard to oppose his reasoning.
After grounding his argument in logic and reason, Paine uses ethos to show moral character. By establishing himself as a trustworthy, credible and honorable leader, Paine can persuade more people to align with his cause. In order to grab the attention of his readers, Paine boldly proclaims all loyalists to be cowards. “You have the heart of a coward and the spirit of a sycophant,” he writes (635). He then quickly reclaims his name-calling by explaining his lack of intention to offend anyone. Rather, Paine was trying to show how grave the colonists’ situation really was. This use of ethos builds Paine’s credibility as a capable and caring leader of the revolution.
One of the strongest lines of argument is the appeal to personal emotions, with human-interest stories and abstract ideals. Paine’s writing becomes more emotionally inspired as the pamphlet progresses. In detail, he describes the “wretchedness” of Britain’s six-month blockade on the city of Boston. “The inhabitants of that unfortunate city had no other alternative than to stay and starve, or turn out to starve. Endangered by the fire of their friends…in their present situation they are prisoners without the hope of redemption, and in a general attack,” Paine passionately depicts. By placing his readers into the troubled hearts and minds of those colonists suffering in Boston, Paine effectively uses pathos to emotionally engage the colonists in his revolutionary cause.
Above all else, Common Sense was able to persuade colonists to unite against England due to Paine’s “plainness.” By using simple, plain and logical language, he was able to transform the arguments of other influential leaders, such as Franklin and Jefferson, into a message that resonated with all colonists on all educational levels. The introduction emphasizes this strength. Paine says, “It is my design to make those who can scarcely read understand, and to put arguments in language as plain as the alphabet, so as to bring out a clear conclusion that shall hit the point in question and nothing else” (630). It is hard to refute an established leader who begins his work with, “In the following pages I offer nothing more than simple facts, plain arguments, and common sense” (631). If it is common sense, it must be true – right?
Thursday, September 25, 2008
Sources of Motivation
Motivation is something we all need a little bit of in life. As humans, it seems impossible to avoid hardship, obstacles and distress. In overcoming these challenges, we all seek motivation, in one form or another. There are many ways to inspire people, depending on his or her personality and the context of the situation. Even centuries ago, Puritan leaders, such as Winthrop, Mathers and Edwards, realized this standard human quality, each using a different type of motivation when addressing followers.
I In 1629, John Winthrop led a group of merchants and devout Puritans to the New World, due to severe economic depression and the ascension of a King sympathetic to the Catholic Church. As the group’s governor, Winthrop delivered his famous sermon, A Model of Christian Charity, at the start of the long journey ahead. His address outlined the ideals of a harmonious Christian community, using the human body as an analogy for Christians being “one body in Christ.” Winthrop also established a goal or standard for his colony to aspire to. “We shall be as a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us,” Winthrop famously states (158). Winthrop uses this “goal-setting” as a strategic form of motivation for his company. By providing an opportunity to achieve excellence, he hoped to inspire his followers as they embark upon the journey, in search for a better life. Through particular Biblical references, Winthrop depicts a just, selfless, tough, compassionate, loving and merciful God for the Puritans to emulate.
Winthrop’s positive and hopeful motivation was effective based on his own personality and the context of the sermon. At one time, Winthrop almost became a clergyman, and therefore was probably a skilled, eloquent and inspiring orator. Hope was also appropriate and successful, because at the time the sermon was delivered the group had not yet encountered obstacles.
An entire century later, Jonathan Edwards, like Winthrop, delivered a sermon, calling the Puritans to a better life. However, Edwards’ form of motivation is drastically different than that of Winthrop. In a flat, serious tone, Edwards depicted an angry, ominous God, who was upset with the Puritans’ lack of religious commitment and respect for Christ’s authority. Edwards’ audience was deeply and openly moved by his frightening imagery. He describes the gruesome fate of the wicked with, “The old serpent is gaping for them; hell opens its mouth wide to receive them; and if God should permit it, they would be hastily swallowed up and lost” (427). Instead of motivating the Puritans with hope and idealism, Edwards uses fear, failure and death as a threatening reality check for one’s spiritual life.
Edward’s source of motivation is understandable and relevant when considering the actions and mindset of his audience. The sermon was directed towards the unregenerate, a group of Puritans holding a firm belief that they were the “elect” and had a secure place in Heaven. This belief perpetuated complacency among the Puritans, distracting them from the importance of loving Earthly actions.
Although the forms of motivation were chosen based on personality and context, I personally believe Winthrop’s positivism and hope is more inspirationally effective, as opposed to Edward’s threatening fear of death. As an idealistic person by nature, I find goal-setting and positive reinforcement the most spiritually beneficial source of motivation.
I In 1629, John Winthrop led a group of merchants and devout Puritans to the New World, due to severe economic depression and the ascension of a King sympathetic to the Catholic Church. As the group’s governor, Winthrop delivered his famous sermon, A Model of Christian Charity, at the start of the long journey ahead. His address outlined the ideals of a harmonious Christian community, using the human body as an analogy for Christians being “one body in Christ.” Winthrop also established a goal or standard for his colony to aspire to. “We shall be as a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us,” Winthrop famously states (158). Winthrop uses this “goal-setting” as a strategic form of motivation for his company. By providing an opportunity to achieve excellence, he hoped to inspire his followers as they embark upon the journey, in search for a better life. Through particular Biblical references, Winthrop depicts a just, selfless, tough, compassionate, loving and merciful God for the Puritans to emulate.
Winthrop’s positive and hopeful motivation was effective based on his own personality and the context of the sermon. At one time, Winthrop almost became a clergyman, and therefore was probably a skilled, eloquent and inspiring orator. Hope was also appropriate and successful, because at the time the sermon was delivered the group had not yet encountered obstacles.
An entire century later, Jonathan Edwards, like Winthrop, delivered a sermon, calling the Puritans to a better life. However, Edwards’ form of motivation is drastically different than that of Winthrop. In a flat, serious tone, Edwards depicted an angry, ominous God, who was upset with the Puritans’ lack of religious commitment and respect for Christ’s authority. Edwards’ audience was deeply and openly moved by his frightening imagery. He describes the gruesome fate of the wicked with, “The old serpent is gaping for them; hell opens its mouth wide to receive them; and if God should permit it, they would be hastily swallowed up and lost” (427). Instead of motivating the Puritans with hope and idealism, Edwards uses fear, failure and death as a threatening reality check for one’s spiritual life.
Edward’s source of motivation is understandable and relevant when considering the actions and mindset of his audience. The sermon was directed towards the unregenerate, a group of Puritans holding a firm belief that they were the “elect” and had a secure place in Heaven. This belief perpetuated complacency among the Puritans, distracting them from the importance of loving Earthly actions.
Although the forms of motivation were chosen based on personality and context, I personally believe Winthrop’s positivism and hope is more inspirationally effective, as opposed to Edward’s threatening fear of death. As an idealistic person by nature, I find goal-setting and positive reinforcement the most spiritually beneficial source of motivation.
Thursday, September 18, 2008
"The Bond of Brotherly Affection"
As the governor of “The Company of Massachusetts Bay in New England,” John Winthrop bravely accepted the daunting task of leading 700 emigrants across the Atlantic into a challenging world of the unknown. In addition to his political leadership role, Winthrop also served as a religious minister for his new colony, working to establish Puritan reforms in place of traditional Catholic rituals. In his sermon “A Model of Christian Charity,” delivered en route to the New World, Winthrop strictly outlined the ideals of a perfect, selfless Christian community.
Winthrop uses the threat of failure and death as a fear tactic in his sermon. Although Puritans and other emigrants seemed to be brewing with hope and excitement for a new and better life, they must have been hiding anxiety of the uncertainties that lied ahead. Winthrop cleverly quells these fears with religion, in order to unite his followers as one family. Only by obeying God as one, would they survive the journey. Winthrop emphasizes this in the conclusion of his sermon when he says, “Therefore let us choose life, that we and our seed may live by obeying His voice and cleaving to Him, for He is our life and our prosperity” (158).
Winthrop outlines several ideal steps to success and prosperity, but repeatedly stresses the eternal importance of love. He notes Scripture’s definition of love as, “the bond of perfection” (152). Winthrop eloquently weaves this definition into the foundation of his ideal Christian community. In order to engrain love into the minds of his eager audience, Winthrop uses the human body as an analogy for the Body of Christ. Just as ligaments connect all the separate parts of one body, Christ’s love unites all Christians into perfect harmony.
Winthrop advocates for peaceful unity in his community by stressing the social and spiritual advantages of living in the “bonds of brotherly affection.” As separate parts of one body, the Puritans must “delight in each other, make other’s conditions our own, rejoice together, mourn together, labor and suffer together” (157). As a true leader, Winthrop encourages his followers to put these idealistic principles into action. Although it will be a true challenge, he tells the Puritans that the only way to survive is to stick together. He reminds the community that they can be a “city upon a hill” and a shining example to the world of either triumph or failure of the Christian cause.
Although idealistic, Winthrop remains a model of Christian charity and leadership. His advice and goals for his Puritan followers still apply to the conflicts of the 21st century. Winthrop reminds me of my own personal purpose in this world when he eloquently says, “Nothing yields more pleasure and content to the soul than when it finds that which it may love fervently, for to love and live beloved is the soul’s paradise, both here and in heaven” (155).
Winthrop uses the threat of failure and death as a fear tactic in his sermon. Although Puritans and other emigrants seemed to be brewing with hope and excitement for a new and better life, they must have been hiding anxiety of the uncertainties that lied ahead. Winthrop cleverly quells these fears with religion, in order to unite his followers as one family. Only by obeying God as one, would they survive the journey. Winthrop emphasizes this in the conclusion of his sermon when he says, “Therefore let us choose life, that we and our seed may live by obeying His voice and cleaving to Him, for He is our life and our prosperity” (158).
Winthrop outlines several ideal steps to success and prosperity, but repeatedly stresses the eternal importance of love. He notes Scripture’s definition of love as, “the bond of perfection” (152). Winthrop eloquently weaves this definition into the foundation of his ideal Christian community. In order to engrain love into the minds of his eager audience, Winthrop uses the human body as an analogy for the Body of Christ. Just as ligaments connect all the separate parts of one body, Christ’s love unites all Christians into perfect harmony.
Winthrop advocates for peaceful unity in his community by stressing the social and spiritual advantages of living in the “bonds of brotherly affection.” As separate parts of one body, the Puritans must “delight in each other, make other’s conditions our own, rejoice together, mourn together, labor and suffer together” (157). As a true leader, Winthrop encourages his followers to put these idealistic principles into action. Although it will be a true challenge, he tells the Puritans that the only way to survive is to stick together. He reminds the community that they can be a “city upon a hill” and a shining example to the world of either triumph or failure of the Christian cause.
Although idealistic, Winthrop remains a model of Christian charity and leadership. His advice and goals for his Puritan followers still apply to the conflicts of the 21st century. Winthrop reminds me of my own personal purpose in this world when he eloquently says, “Nothing yields more pleasure and content to the soul than when it finds that which it may love fervently, for to love and live beloved is the soul’s paradise, both here and in heaven” (155).
Thursday, September 11, 2008
The American Dream
We have all heard of the famous John Smith. But, surprisingly there are contrasting opinions of his reputation. Depending on who you ask, Smith could either be a hero or a villain.
According to Leo Lemay’s novel The American Dream of Captain John Smith, Smith was a “social visionary who founded the American belief in the common man” and the “greatest single founder of the English colonies in America.” Both of these powerful statements directly refute the long-standing criticism of Smith as an arrogant braggart, individually responsible for the mistreatment and murder of American Indians. Although it is impossible to know the real nature of John Smith since we were not alive at the time, we must analyze the written works, both left by Smith and about Smith, in order to formulate our own conclusions concerning his personality.
Although the titles of Smith’s written works seem to be basic descriptions of Virginia and New England, he actually had deeper intentions. In the excerpt from “The General History of Virginia, New England and the Summer Isles,” Smith describes, at length, the difficulties the English encountered in the New World. Smith notes, “The fault of our going was our own.” Initially it appears as if he is accepting blame. He then continues, “We were all ignorant and supposing to make our passage in two months…by the unskillful presumption of our ignorant transporters that understood not at all what they undertook.” Smith is now shifting the blame to others in order to promote himself as a more capable leader and explorer than the previous captains. Although this may seem cocky and self-centered, it’s important to remember that a small ounce of arrogance, pride and idealism is necessary in order to succeed at bold adventures, such as establishing a new colony in an unknown territory.
As noted in Leo Lemay’s novel mentioned above, Smith has, and should be, praised for his energy and initiative in persuading his fellow English citizens to settle in the New World. By promising a life of plenty through hard work and commitment, John Smith can be credited with the founding of the “American Dream.” Through his skillful rhetoric and persevering leadership, Smith appealed to English desires to start a new life, gain social respectability and attain prosperity. “Our pleasure here is still gains; in England, charges and loss. Here nature and liberty afford us that freely, which in England we want, or it costs us dearly,” Smith eloquently states. The British had the choice of barely surviving by remaining in England, or experiencing the fulfillment of making a better and more prosperous life in New England.
By seeking out English citizens who existed on the fringes of society, such as the merchants, prisoners and indentured servants, Smith was able to recruit a hard-working and diligent group of people. This alone might have been the key to his future success. Thanks to John Smith, Americans today still survive off that same hope and dream of accomplishing one’s goals, no matter how high or far away they may seem.
According to Leo Lemay’s novel The American Dream of Captain John Smith, Smith was a “social visionary who founded the American belief in the common man” and the “greatest single founder of the English colonies in America.” Both of these powerful statements directly refute the long-standing criticism of Smith as an arrogant braggart, individually responsible for the mistreatment and murder of American Indians. Although it is impossible to know the real nature of John Smith since we were not alive at the time, we must analyze the written works, both left by Smith and about Smith, in order to formulate our own conclusions concerning his personality.
Although the titles of Smith’s written works seem to be basic descriptions of Virginia and New England, he actually had deeper intentions. In the excerpt from “The General History of Virginia, New England and the Summer Isles,” Smith describes, at length, the difficulties the English encountered in the New World. Smith notes, “The fault of our going was our own.” Initially it appears as if he is accepting blame. He then continues, “We were all ignorant and supposing to make our passage in two months…by the unskillful presumption of our ignorant transporters that understood not at all what they undertook.” Smith is now shifting the blame to others in order to promote himself as a more capable leader and explorer than the previous captains. Although this may seem cocky and self-centered, it’s important to remember that a small ounce of arrogance, pride and idealism is necessary in order to succeed at bold adventures, such as establishing a new colony in an unknown territory.
As noted in Leo Lemay’s novel mentioned above, Smith has, and should be, praised for his energy and initiative in persuading his fellow English citizens to settle in the New World. By promising a life of plenty through hard work and commitment, John Smith can be credited with the founding of the “American Dream.” Through his skillful rhetoric and persevering leadership, Smith appealed to English desires to start a new life, gain social respectability and attain prosperity. “Our pleasure here is still gains; in England, charges and loss. Here nature and liberty afford us that freely, which in England we want, or it costs us dearly,” Smith eloquently states. The British had the choice of barely surviving by remaining in England, or experiencing the fulfillment of making a better and more prosperous life in New England.
By seeking out English citizens who existed on the fringes of society, such as the merchants, prisoners and indentured servants, Smith was able to recruit a hard-working and diligent group of people. This alone might have been the key to his future success. Thanks to John Smith, Americans today still survive off that same hope and dream of accomplishing one’s goals, no matter how high or far away they may seem.
Thursday, September 4, 2008
Contact and Conflict
Much of American culture and history comes from society’s trust in the media. We trust TV, celebrities, ads and magazines as credible sources of important information. Rarely do we question the validity of the key messages they are delivering. One industry that America relies upon for positive influence and education of our youth is Disney. Certain Disney stories are taken as factual accounts of important American historical events. Thanks to Disney, most Americans are familiar with the story of Pocahontas. This heroic Native American girl is credited with going against her Native American tribe and saving the life of Captain John Smith. It is only after reading “Native Americans: Contact and Conflict” that I began to question my knowledge acquired through Disney films and stories.
For starters, I never knew Pocahontas was not the young Indian girl’s name. I was most intrigued by the author’s note, “Smith’s salvation was purely ceremonial, an act intended to bring him and his powerful English companions into reciprocal relations with the Chesapeake Bay Natives” (437). I interpreted this description as a Native American attempt to seek peace, friendship and harmony with the arrival of their new English visitors. Rather than taking the time to consider being friends with the Indians, who were really original inhabitants of North America, Europeans quickly jumped to hateful conclusions, building violent boundaries with the Native Americans. Centuries of hate between “white people” and Native Americans have existed from this initial historical act or cultural misinterpretation by Europeans. History possibly could have been less gory or hostile.
This cultural misinterpretation serves as a reminder for the importance of studying other cultures. Instead of assuming a level of superiority, Europeans should have taken into consideration the views, opinions and traditions of the Native Americans. The Indians were forced to alter their peaceful approach to the Europeans due to lack of English understanding and relentless demand for their land. It is only through reading the literature of other cultures that we can come to a deeper understanding of their values, motives and reasons for their actions. As a hybrid culture, America consists of numerous diverse groups of people. In order to cooperatively interact and live, we must understand each others’ story. Mutual respect is a product of understanding.
The conflict that resulted from the interaction between the Native Americans and Europeans has lent the impression that the Indians were drastically different from “white people.” However, it’s interesting to see the similarities between these conflicting groups. In his “Speech at Detroit,” Pontiac focuses on different aspects of the “Great Spirit” or “Master of Life” (439). This higher being closely parallels aspects found in European Christianity. For example, the “Great Spirit” says, “I am the maker of Heaven and Earth.” This exact phrase is found in several Christian creeds as well. The spirit also outlines morals and values similar to those of Christianity, such as the prohibition to marry more than one wife. Finally, these rules are recorded in a permanent manner in order for them to be perpetuated throughout time, which parallels the recording of the Ten Commandments on the stone tablets.
Instead of declaring war against one another, maybe the Native Americans and Europeans could have focused on their similarities and the possibility of peace.
For starters, I never knew Pocahontas was not the young Indian girl’s name. I was most intrigued by the author’s note, “Smith’s salvation was purely ceremonial, an act intended to bring him and his powerful English companions into reciprocal relations with the Chesapeake Bay Natives” (437). I interpreted this description as a Native American attempt to seek peace, friendship and harmony with the arrival of their new English visitors. Rather than taking the time to consider being friends with the Indians, who were really original inhabitants of North America, Europeans quickly jumped to hateful conclusions, building violent boundaries with the Native Americans. Centuries of hate between “white people” and Native Americans have existed from this initial historical act or cultural misinterpretation by Europeans. History possibly could have been less gory or hostile.
This cultural misinterpretation serves as a reminder for the importance of studying other cultures. Instead of assuming a level of superiority, Europeans should have taken into consideration the views, opinions and traditions of the Native Americans. The Indians were forced to alter their peaceful approach to the Europeans due to lack of English understanding and relentless demand for their land. It is only through reading the literature of other cultures that we can come to a deeper understanding of their values, motives and reasons for their actions. As a hybrid culture, America consists of numerous diverse groups of people. In order to cooperatively interact and live, we must understand each others’ story. Mutual respect is a product of understanding.
The conflict that resulted from the interaction between the Native Americans and Europeans has lent the impression that the Indians were drastically different from “white people.” However, it’s interesting to see the similarities between these conflicting groups. In his “Speech at Detroit,” Pontiac focuses on different aspects of the “Great Spirit” or “Master of Life” (439). This higher being closely parallels aspects found in European Christianity. For example, the “Great Spirit” says, “I am the maker of Heaven and Earth.” This exact phrase is found in several Christian creeds as well. The spirit also outlines morals and values similar to those of Christianity, such as the prohibition to marry more than one wife. Finally, these rules are recorded in a permanent manner in order for them to be perpetuated throughout time, which parallels the recording of the Ten Commandments on the stone tablets.
Instead of declaring war against one another, maybe the Native Americans and Europeans could have focused on their similarities and the possibility of peace.
Tuesday, September 2, 2008
Common Culture in Creation Stories
Although the tales of Native Americans are short and simple, each story embodies an entire culture of its own. When put in its cultural context, the simplicity of the tales actually contains deeper meanings. While the creation stories convey origins and identities, the trickster tales serve as life lessons of morality and standards of behavior.
Despite the different animals, characters and plot lines, the Native American creation stories have common themes woven throughout. The overwhelming presence of animals, mountains and rivers emphasizes the Native American importance of and dependence upon nature. For example, in the Iroquois creation story the turtle becomes an “island of earth,” serving as a sturdy foundation for life itself (20). A second widespread theme is the presence of rival twins. The Iroquois Creation Story provides the strongest example of tension between good and evil in the form of the good mind vs. the bad mind. Finally, the significance of the number four can be found in both the creation stories and most of the trickster tales. For example, in the Pima creation story The Doctor of the Earth does not successfully create the Earth until the fourth try (22). The exception for the number four theme comes from the Clatsop people, who emphasized the number three, possibly as a result of a wider exposure to Christianity.
Trickster tales provide more detailed identities for Native American tribes. Through both good and bad examples, each tale reveals important values, morals and behavioral ideals. For example, the trickster Wakjankaga reminds the Winnebago people not to act superior towards nature in the tale of the talking laxative bulb (81). Another example of learning from bad behavior comes from the Navajo’s coyote trickster, who selfishly throws food away, instead of conserving and respecting nature as a vital resource for life (103). Other Native American tricksters provide positive examples, such as the Koasati’s Bear, who gives himself to others by literally cutting his stomach for the rabbit to eat (87). Another important value found throughout all of the trickster tales is the necessity of respecting one’s elders. For example, in the Sioux tale Ikto and Iya repeatedly argue who is the elder. “Well, my younger brother – or is he my elder brother?” Iya asks himself (84). With age, comes wisdom and tradition from years past. In these Native American tribes, everyone is related, stressing the importance of kinship.
Native American literature, in the form of creation stories and trickster tales, serve as a foundation for and cornerstone of the beginnings of American literature. Contrary to the overwhelming amount of precise detail present in British literature, these Native American stories are conveyed in a very general manner. Characters and animals seem to be floating across time and space, aimlessly wandering around a so-called “Earth.” Personally, I find this lack of detail interesting, since I am so used to the detailed writing of other authors and the details emphasized in my own writing.
As a foundation of American literature, Native American stories were products of a unique oral culture. The stories of today were once passed from generation to generation, not by pen and paper, but rather from memory, through plays and performances. This evokes an interesting question, as mentioned in the introduction – Is oral literature really literature? Can it be effectively conveyed through the confines of the written word? I believe that, yes, the oral culture of the Native Americans, biases included, can be considered literature in its own unique way, due to its intent of teaching people how to live, from times past and for the future.
Despite the different animals, characters and plot lines, the Native American creation stories have common themes woven throughout. The overwhelming presence of animals, mountains and rivers emphasizes the Native American importance of and dependence upon nature. For example, in the Iroquois creation story the turtle becomes an “island of earth,” serving as a sturdy foundation for life itself (20). A second widespread theme is the presence of rival twins. The Iroquois Creation Story provides the strongest example of tension between good and evil in the form of the good mind vs. the bad mind. Finally, the significance of the number four can be found in both the creation stories and most of the trickster tales. For example, in the Pima creation story The Doctor of the Earth does not successfully create the Earth until the fourth try (22). The exception for the number four theme comes from the Clatsop people, who emphasized the number three, possibly as a result of a wider exposure to Christianity.
Trickster tales provide more detailed identities for Native American tribes. Through both good and bad examples, each tale reveals important values, morals and behavioral ideals. For example, the trickster Wakjankaga reminds the Winnebago people not to act superior towards nature in the tale of the talking laxative bulb (81). Another example of learning from bad behavior comes from the Navajo’s coyote trickster, who selfishly throws food away, instead of conserving and respecting nature as a vital resource for life (103). Other Native American tricksters provide positive examples, such as the Koasati’s Bear, who gives himself to others by literally cutting his stomach for the rabbit to eat (87). Another important value found throughout all of the trickster tales is the necessity of respecting one’s elders. For example, in the Sioux tale Ikto and Iya repeatedly argue who is the elder. “Well, my younger brother – or is he my elder brother?” Iya asks himself (84). With age, comes wisdom and tradition from years past. In these Native American tribes, everyone is related, stressing the importance of kinship.
Native American literature, in the form of creation stories and trickster tales, serve as a foundation for and cornerstone of the beginnings of American literature. Contrary to the overwhelming amount of precise detail present in British literature, these Native American stories are conveyed in a very general manner. Characters and animals seem to be floating across time and space, aimlessly wandering around a so-called “Earth.” Personally, I find this lack of detail interesting, since I am so used to the detailed writing of other authors and the details emphasized in my own writing.
As a foundation of American literature, Native American stories were products of a unique oral culture. The stories of today were once passed from generation to generation, not by pen and paper, but rather from memory, through plays and performances. This evokes an interesting question, as mentioned in the introduction – Is oral literature really literature? Can it be effectively conveyed through the confines of the written word? I believe that, yes, the oral culture of the Native Americans, biases included, can be considered literature in its own unique way, due to its intent of teaching people how to live, from times past and for the future.
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